2: Effective Body Writing
TOPICS SELECTION
You can choose and determine your topics by asking strategic questions. To see how this works in detail, imagine that you are giving a speech to asgroupsof high school students on the values of a college education. Your thesis is:“A college education is valuable.”You then ask,“Why is it valuable?”From this question and generate as many answers as possible, without evaluating them. You may come up with answers such as the following:
1. It helps you get a good job.
2. It increases your earning potential.
3. It gives you greater job mobility.
4. It helps you secure more creative work.
5. It helps you to appreciate the arts more fully.
6. It helps you to understand an extremely complex world.
7. It helps you understand different cultures.
8. It allows you to avoid taking a regular job for a few years.
9. It helps you meet lots of people and make new friends.
10. It helps you increase your personal effectiveness.
There are, of course, other possibilities, but for purposes of illustration, these 10 possible main points will suffice. But not all 10 are equally valuable or relevant to your audience, so you should look over the list to see how to make it shorter and more meaningful. Try these suggestions:
1. Eliminate those points that seem least important to your thesis. On this basis you might want to eliminate No. 8 since this seems least consistent with your intended emphasis on the positive values of college.
2. Combine those points that have a common focus. Notice, for example, that the first four points all center on the values of college in terms of jobs. You might, therefore, consider grouping these four itemssintosone proposition: A college education helps you get a good job.
This point might be one of the major propositions that could be developed by defining what you mean by a“good job.”This main point or proposition and its elaboration might look like this:
Ⅰ. A college education helps you get a good job.
A. College graduates earn higher salaries.
B. College graduates enter more creative jobs.
C. College graduates have greater job mobility.
Note that A, B, and C are all aspects or subdivisions of a“good job.”
3. Select points that are most relevant to or that interest your audience. On this basis you might eliminate No. 5 and No. 7 on the assumption that the audience will not see learning about the arts or different cultures as exciting or valuable at the present time. You might also decide that high school students would be more interested in increasing personal effectiveness, so you might select No. 10 for inclusion as a second major proposition: A college education increases your personal effectiveness.
Earlier you developed the subordinate points in your first proposition (the A, B, and C of I) by defining more clearly what you meant by a“good job.”Follow the same process here by defining what you mean by“personal effectiveness.”It might look something like this:
Ⅱ. A college education helps increase your personal effectiveness.
A. A college education helps you improve your ability to communicate.
B. A college education helps you acquire the skills for learning how to think.
C. A college education helps you acquire coping skills.
Follow the same procedure you used to generate the subordinate points (A, B, and C) to develop the subheading under A, B, and C. For example, point A might be dividedsintostwo major subheads:
A. A college education helps improve your ability to communicate.
a. College improves your writing skills.
b. College improves your speech skills.
Develop points B and C in essentially the same way by defining more clearly (in B) what you mean by“learning how to think”and (in C) what you mean by“coping skills.”
The body of a speech contains three or four sections related to the topic. It includes an outline of the major ideas, and it also has information that supports and clarifies those ideas. In the same way as clarified in the previous example, you can organize some topics like the following first.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”
Choose the best honeymoon vacation.
Discuss important financial matters together.
Be courteous to each other.
Learn to compromise.
Bring up your children well.
Respect your spouse’s property.
Buy a nice home together.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”
Choose an appropriate wardrobe.
Behave appropriately during the personal interview.
Write a résumé.
Find the desired position.
Schedule appointments.
Get a flexible work schedule.
Learn new skills.
Second, narrow your list subtopics. Review your list and select the three or four subtopics that will best develop your speech in the time allowed. These subtopics will become the main headings of your speech.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”
Discuss important financial matters together.
Be courteous to each other.
Learn to compromise.
Respect your spouse’s property.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”
Behave appropriately during the personal interview.
Write a résumé.
Find the desired position.
Schedule appointments.
Third,sgroupsyour subtopics logically so that one leads naturallysintosthe next one.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Having a Happy Marriage”
Respect your spouse’s property.
Be courteous to each other.
Discuss important financial matters together.
Learn to compromise.
Example:
Speech Entitled“Applying for a Job”
Find the desired position.
Write a résumé.
Schedule appointments.
Behave appropriately during the personal interview.
Fourth, develop your subtopics with factual information, logical proof, and visual aids. If your subtopics are supported and well-organized, your sections will be interesting and your listeners will better understand and remember your speech.
ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS
Once you have identified the major propositions you wish to include in your speech, you need to devote attention to how you will arrange these propositions in the body of your speech. When you follow a clearly identified organizational pattern, your listeners will be able to see your speech as a whole and will be able to see more clearly the connections and relationships among your various pieces of information. Should they have a momentary lapse in attention - as they surely will at some point in just about every speech - they will be able to refocus their attention and not lose your entire train of thought.
1. Temporal Pattern
Organizing your propositions on the basis of some temporal (time) relationship is a popular and easy-to-use organizational pattern. It is also a pattern that listeners will find easy to follow. Generally, when you use this pattern, you organize your speechsintostwo, three, or four major parts, beginning with the past and working up to the present or the future, or beginning with the present or the future and working back to the past.
The temporal (sometimes called“chronological”) pattern is especially appropriate for informative speeches in which you wish to describe events or processes that occur over time. It is also useful when you wish to demonstrate how something works or how to do something.
A speech on the development of language in the child might be organized in a temporal pattern and could be divided something like this:
The Development of Language
Ⅰ. Babbling occurs around the fifth month.
Ⅱ. Lallation occurs around the sixth month.
Ⅲ. Echolalia occurs around the ninth month.
Ⅳ.“Communication”occurs around the twelfth month.
Here you would cover each of the events in a time sequence beginning with the earliest stage and working up to the final stage - in this case the stage of true communication.
Most historical topics lend themselves to organization by time. The events leading up to the Civil War, the steps toward a college education, or the history of writing would all be appropriate for temporal patterning. A time pattern would also be appropriate in describing the essential steps in a multistep process in which temporalsgroupsis especially important. The steps involved in making interpersonal contact with another person might look something like this:
Making Interpersonal Contact
Ⅰ. Spot the person you want to make contact with.
Ⅱ. Make eye contact.
Ⅲ. Give some positive nonverbal sign.
Ⅳ. Make verbal contact.
2. Spatial Pattern
You can also organize your main points on the basis of space. This pattern is especially useful when you wish to describe objects or places. Like the temporal pattern, it is an organizational pattern that listeners will find easy to follow as you progress, from top to bottom, left to right, inside to outside, or from east to west, for example.
Geographical topics generally fit wellsintosorganization by spatial patterning. For example, for a speech on places to visit in southern Europe, you might go from west to east, considering the countries to visit and, within these countries, the cities. The main heading of such a speech might look like this:
Touring Southern Europe
Ⅰ. Your first stop is Portugal.
Ⅱ. Your second stop is Spain.
Ⅲ. Your third stop is Italy.
Ⅳ. Your fourth stop is Greece.
Similarly, the structure of a place, object, or even animal is easily placedsintosa spatial pattern. You might describe the layout of a hospital, school, skyscraper, or perhaps even the structure of a dinosaur with a spatial pattern of organization.
3. Topical Pattern
Perhaps the most popular pattern for organizing informative speeches is the topical pattern. When your topic conveniently divides itselfsintossubdivisions, each of which is clear and approximately equal in importance, this pattern is most useful. It is not, however, a catch-all category for topics that do not seem to fitsintosany of the other patterns. Rather, this pattern should be regarded as one appropriate to the particular topic being considered. For example, the topical pattern is an obvious one for organizing a speech on the powers of the government. Here the divisions are clear.
The Powers of Government
Ⅰ. The legislative branch is controlled by Congress.
Ⅱ. The executive branch is controlled by the President.
Ⅲ. The judicial branch is controlled by the courts.
Note that the topic itself, the powers of the government, divides itselfsintosthree parts: legislative, executive and judicial. It remains for you to organize your various materials under these three logical headings.
A speech on the forms of communication would most likely be organized around a topical pattern. It would look something like this:
Forms of Communication
Ⅰ. Interpersonal communication occurs within oneself.
Ⅱ. Interpersonal communication occurs between two people.
Ⅲ. Public communication occurs between speaker and audience.
Ⅳ. Mass communication occurs through some audio or visual transmitter.
A speech on important cities of the world might be organizedsintosa topical pattern, as might speeches on problems facing the college graduate, great works of literature, the world’s major religions, and the like. Each of these topics would have several subtopics or divisions of approximately equal importance; consequently, a topical pattern seems most appropriate.
4. Problem-Solution Pattern
The problem-solution pattern is especially useful in persuasive speechesswheresyou want to convince the audience that a problem exists and that your solution would solve or alleviate the problem.
Let’s say you are attempting to persuade an audience that teachers should be given higher salaries and increased benefits. Here a problem-solution pattern might be appropriate. You might, for example, discuss in the first part of the speech the problems confronting contemporary education such as (1) industry lures away the most highly qualified graduates, (2) many excellent teachers leave the field after two or three years, and (3) teaching is currently a low-status occupation.
In the second part of your speech you might consider the possible solutions that you wish your audience to accept. These might include, for example: (1) salaries for teachers must be made competitive with salaries offered by private industry, and (2) the benefits teachers receive must be made as attractive as those offered by industry. Your speech, in outline form, might look like this:
Ⅰ. Three major problems confront elementary education.
A. Industry lures away the most qualified graduates.
B. Numerous excellent teachers leave the field after two or three years.
C. Teaching is currently a lowstatus occupation.
Ⅱ. Two major solutions to these problems exist.
A. Salaries for teachers should be increased.
B. Benefits for teachers should be made more attractive.
5. Cause-Effect/Effect-Cause Pattern
Similar to problem-solution pattern is the cause-effect or effect-cause pattern. This pattern is useful in persuasive speeches in which you want to convince your audience of the causal connection existing between two events or two element. In the cause-effect pattern you divide the speechsintostwo major sections, causes and effects.
For example, a speech on the reasons for highway accidents or birth defects might lend itself to a cause-effect pattern. Here you might first consider, say, the causes of highway accidents or birth defects and then some of the effects, for example, the number of deaths, the number of accidents, and so on.
A speech on hypertension, designed to spell out some of the causes and effects, might look like this:
Ⅰ. There are three main causes of hypertension.
A. High salt intake increases blood pressure.
B. Excess weight increases blood pressure.
C. Anxiety increases blood pressure.
Ⅱ. There are three major effects of hypertension.
A. Nervousness increases.
B. Heart rate increases.
C. Shortness of breath increases.
LANGUAGE
1. Using Explanations
Explanation is the act or process of making something plain or comprehensible. It is often accomplished by a simple, concise exposition that sets forth the relation between a whole and its parts. For instance:
A state is one of the internally autonomous political units composing a federation under a sovereign government; for example, New York, Montana, and Alaska are states within the United States.
Explanation is also accomplished by providing a definition. This alternative can take a variety of forms:
●Providing a dictionary definition (which typically involves placing the construct to be defined in a category and then explaining the features that distinguish this construct from all other members of the category - e.g.,“Primary means‘first in time, order, or importance”)
●Using synonyms (words with approximately the same meaning - e.g.,“Mawkish as an adjective indicates that someone or something is sentimental, maudlin, or gushy”) and/or antonyms (words that have opposite meanings)
●Using comparisons (showing listeners the similarities between something unfamiliar and something familiar) and contrasts (supporting an idea by emphasizing the differences between two constructs)
●Providing an operational definition (defining a process by describing the steps involved in that process - e.g.,“To create calligraphy, you begin with a wide-nibbed pen...”)
To be effective, explanations must be framed within the experiences of members of the audience and cannot be too long or abstract.
2. Using Examples
Examples serve as an illustration, a model, or an instance of what is to be explained. They can either be developed in detail (an illustration) or presented in abbreviated, undeveloped fashion ( a specific instance). An illustration - an extended example presented in narrative form - can be either hypothetical (a story that could but did not happen) or factual (a story that did happen). For example, a presenter might involve the listeners in a hypothetical illustration by suggesting,“Imagine yourself getting ready to give a speech. You reachsintosyour bag for the manuscript that you carefully prepared over the course of the past week. It isn’t there! You madly search through everything in the bag.”Whether hypothetical or factual, the illustration should be relevant and appropriate to the audience, typical rather than exceptional, and vivid and impressive in detail.
A specific instance is an undeveloped or condensed illustration or example. Therefore, it requires listeners to recognize the names, events, or situations in the instance. If a presenter, for example, uses“President Dewey”as a specific illustration of the dangers of poor sampling techniques when engaged in public opinion polling, and the audience has never heard of Thomas Dewey (Harry Truman’s Republican opponent in the 1948 presidential election), this specific instance will not be an effective way of making the point clear and vivid.
3. Using Statistics
As a form of supporting material, statistics are used to describe the end result of collecting, organizing, and interpreting numerical data.
When using statistics, you should be aware of two basic concerns: (1) Are the statistics accurate and unbiased? (2) Are they clear and meaningful? Addressing the first issue involves responses to such questions as: Are the statistical techniques appropriate and are they appropriately used? Do the statistics cover enough cases and length of time? Although you may not have the expertise to answer such questions, you can ask about the credibility of the source of the statistics. Do you have any reason to believe that the person orsgroupsfrom whom you got the statistics might be biased? Are these statistics consistent with other things you know about the situation? Addressing the second issue involves more pragmatic considerations: Can you translate difficult-to-comprehend numberssintosmore immediately understandable terms? How, for example, might you make the difference between 400,000 and 400 million more vivid? How can you provide adequate context for the data? Is it fair, for example, to compare 1960 dollars with 1992 dollars? Could a graph or visual aid clarify the data and statistical trends? As we will see shortly, supplementing a verbal presentation with a visual aid can greatly increase comprehension and retention.
